Digital Text Book

Erica Brenes – Spring 2018 – El Camino College

English 1A Reader

It’s none of their business that you have to learn to write. Let them think you were born that way.– Ernest Hemingway

Chapter I: Let’s Just Start Writing

Essay 1: Summary Response

This first essay will serve as a diagnostic, which means it’s low stakes, and I simply want you to do your best work. No matter how you do, you will be required to rewrite the paper, so simply do your best. The objective of this assignment is for us to both discover where you stand, how that aligns with my English 1A expectations, what goals we should aspire to for the rest of our time together, and it will allow us to name and celebrate all that you already know. It will also assess your ability to summarize something you’ve read, generate an opinion, and support that opinion using what you’ve read and understood.

Note, a “summary” asks you to craft a condensed version of a longer piece of writing. In this specific case, you will provide your reader with the main points of the article in your own words. The purpose of this essay, however, does not stop there. I am also asking you to provide brief analysis, in which you break down the points or parts of the article and then finally you will supply a response or reaction.

For more clarity, follow the guidelines provided below:

·        Your introductory paragraph must begin with an attention getter.

·        Shortly thereafter, you must briefly summarize the article, specifically and clearly naming the author’s thesis.

·        Your introductory paragraph must also close on a closed thesis statement where you voice your judgment/opinion of the author’s position.

·        Although this essay should only be 2-3 pages long, you should succinctly explain which ideas you agree with or/and which ideas you disagree with. These ideas will be previewed in your thesis.

·        Assume your readers have not read the article you have selected and be careful to help guide the reader towards a comprehensive understanding of the author’s ideas and your position of them.  Using specific, direct support from the article will help greatly with this. I suggest you integrate 2-3 quotations.

·        You may also use personal experience to help support and clarify your point. In that regard, “I” is welcome. 

Some Hot Tips and Suggestions:

●       Keep your summary brief and focused. Do not summarize for the entire paragraph; a helpful technique is commonly referred to as the “list summary.” It usually sounds something like this:

The short story “Little Red Riding Hood” is about many different thing. First, it is about a little girl who is tasked with a journey. Then, on that journey, she is confronted with a wolf and the choice to obey her mother or to take a risky shortcut. Ultimately, she chooses the shortcut and that allows the wolf to beat her to her grandmother’s house. He then eats her grandmother and tries to eat her. Finally, she is rescued and she learns an important lesson about not trusting strangers and always following the instructions of her mother. 

●       Your thesis must reveal your overall opinion (judgment) about the article.  It cannot merely be a summary statement. Consider the following:

                       “Little Red Riding Hood” may seem to have a strong moral for children, but it has                                       unfortunate implications; children who read along may inherit fear and codependence.

●       Title your essay creatively. See below:

               I Ain’t Afraid of No Wolves

·        Consider using the following templates to practice writing in a new way. Some of these will help you integrate direct quotations—a difficult but important skill:

ü  In the article …., X states, “____________,” clearly advocating for ____________________.

ü  When X writes, “________,” s/he argues that _________________________________.

ü  As X puts it, “_________________;” in other words, ____________________________.

ü  The article … claims ___________________________.

ü  The writer suggests __________________________________________________.’

ü  “_______________” suggests that the writer believes ______________________.

ü  The writer insists ____________________________________________________.

ü  The writer reminds the reader that ______________________________________.

        NOTE: Feel free to add adverbs before these powerful verbs to add meaning,         such as: aptly, pertinently, rightly, or justifiably. If your essay is one a         disapproval, think of words like: mistakenly, faultily, wrongly, unfortunately.

ü  According to X, “_____________________________.”

ü  The evidence in the article shows _______________________________________.

ü  I dis/agree with (the author) _________, ____________ is ____________________.

ü  _________________ is correct because _________________________________.

ü  Without a shadow of a doubt, I endorse/reject __________________’s argument that __________ is __________ because _____________________________________.  

ü  _______________’s claims are questionable/wrong because __________________.

ü  I struggle to accept the argument _________ is _______ because ______________.   

ü  My own view is that ___________________________________________________.

Rubric:

25% of the grade will assess mechanics.

·       Is it readable? Is it easy to understand? Do you use the correct vocabulary? Are you using proper grammar? Did you edit and proofread?

Grade:                         1          2          3          4          5

-        “1” meaning this essay was hard to read and understand and we should meet soon and discuss a plan. “5” meaning your execution and grammar were impeccable.

SLO being assessed:

-        Demonstrate logical paragraph composition and sentence structure. How did you do? A “3” means mastery:  ________

25% of the grade will be concerned with comprehension.

·       Did you understand what you read? Did you use support from the article? Did you grasp the larger picture issues discussed? Did you understand the prompt?

Grade:                         1          2          3          4          5

-        “1” meaning this essay showed that you may have some trouble reading college level texts. We should meet soon and discuss a plan. The closer you score to “1,” the more you should consider visiting the reading center ASAP. “5” means that while you may have struggled elsewhere, I’m not currently concerned with your reading ability whatsoever.

SLOs being assessed:

-        #1: Student is able to “thoughtfully support a single thesis using analysis and synthesis” How did you do? A “3” means mastery:  ________

25% of the grade will assess structure and organization.

·       Do your topic sentences link to your thesis? Do you transition inside paragraphs and in between paragraphs? Do your paragraphs illustrate coherence and unity? Does your essay flow? Go together, connect, interweave?

Grade:                         1          2          3          4          5

·       “1” meaning this essay was choppy. Let’s work on this by reviewing outlining and reading over a list of transition words. Perhaps you should revise after visiting office hours or the writing center. “5” means that this essay showed a mastery of structure, paragraph form, and essay unity.

SLOs being assessed:

-        #3: Student is able to “demonstrate logical paragraph composition” How did you do? A “3” means mastery:  ________

25% of the grade will evaluate critical thinking and creativity.

·       Are you generating unique thoughts or parroting what we discussed in class? Do you take your thinking to the next level? Are you probing the text with interested in depth questions? Are you developing enough commentary to best complement your evidence? And are you writing all of this with style, grace, and interesting vocabulary and syntax?

Grade:                         1          2          3          4          5 

4 x Total _______ = ________

Now choose your essay to summarize and respond to. Find the texts below.

Essay 1: Teaching kids about Thanksgiving or Columbus? They deserve the real story

Essay 2:

Essay 1: Teaching kids about Thanksgiving or Columbus? They deserve the real story

By David Cutler, PBSNewshour

Kindergarten students wearing costumes depicting Native Americans and Pilgrims eat during a Thanksgiving eve lunch. Photo from Getty.

In the season four premiere of ABC’s hit sitcom “Black-ish,” Dre, a charismatic dad played by Anthony Anderson, is distraught over his children’s performance in a school play about Christopher Columbus.

Dre’s daughter, dressed as a Native American, recites arguably the most famous jingle about the so-called Admiral of the Seas, “In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue,” while his son, with a welcoming smile and upbeat attitude, says, “I’m Christopher Columbus, and I discovered America.”

Dre objects, saying, “Fake history, right?” The kids break into a fantasy sequence to rap about what actually transpired. “Everything you know about Columbus is a joke,” Dre’s daughter sings. “He didn’t discover America — prepare to get woke.”

My juniors in American History felt “woke” after reading about Columbus in author James W. Loewen’s book, “Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong.” Not only did Columbus never set foot in the United States, they learn, but he also wasn’t the first to discover that the world was round. On that front, the ancient Greeks beat him to the punch by about 2,000 years.

Moreover, while it’s fair to give Columbus credit for opening our hemisphere to Western Europe, Leif Erikson, the Norse explorer, likely landed in present-day Canada hundreds of years earlier — and that’s just the tip of the iceberg with respect to who in the “Old World” crossed the Atlantic first.

Many teachers, students and institutions are reconsidering how to evaluate Columbus, and other figures like him who have been revered in history books of the past. Take it from Eric H Shed, director of the Harvard Teachers Fellows Program and a lecturer on education.

“I think it’s a part of a general shift in the way in which we teach history, to question the past and not accept it as fact,” Shed told me, when we spoke recently. He also feels that recent efforts to remove Confederate monuments, along with broader national discussions about what being inclusive means, are helping to bring about such welcome change.

Questioning Columbus

My students felt betrayed, angry even, that throughout their elementary and middle school years, teachers had pushed a fake narrative about Columbus, or had done little, if anything, to correct the record.

“I’ve been tricked into honoring and celebrating this vile human being my whole life,” said one student, pointing to damning evidence to back up his claim:

During his first voyage, Columbus kidnapped a handful of American Indians to bring back to Spain. “I could conquer the whole of them with 50 men, and govern them as I pleased,” he wrote in his journal. It’s worth noting that the indigenous people Columbus encountered in the Bahamas were largely peaceful and friendly toward the visitors. On his second voyage, in 1493, Columbus rewarded his men with native women to rape. As Loewen writes, “On Haiti, sex slaves were one more perquisite that the Spaniards enjoyed.” As punishment for populations who did not supply enough gold, Columbus also sanctioned body dismemberment and war. Explorers like Hernando Cortés and Francisco Pizarro laid waste to the mighty Aztec and Incan empires, respectively, in their search for riches. For his view on how to teach about Columbus, I spoke with Loewen, who suggested that I keep my personal views about the explorer to myself. Instead, he told me, “You might point out that he is the only guy who gets a named holiday, except for this guy named Martin Luther King, Jr., who tried to remove some of the vestiges of slavery. And here with Columbus, you have the guy who started the transatlantic slave trade.”

When it comes to teaching younger children about Columbus, it’s understandable that certain details should be left out. Still, we do students a tremendous disservice when we celebrate only Columbus’ bravery, without noting how he personified evil and wrongdoing. No matter the age of your students, consider asking why they think a growing list of cities and states are adopting Indigenous Peoples’ Day on the federal holiday reserved for Columbus.

To check my thinking, I asked Shed for his thoughts. “I would be concerned with any teacher who doesn’t help their kids question the past,” he said, before expressing how he would “find problematic” any approach that fails to direct students toward evidence and interpretation to help assess the past.

The Thanksgiving Story Vs. History

If you’re a teacher who feels that you may want to change course on how you teach U.S. history, keep in mind that Thanksgiving is right around the corner.

Reconsider the way teachers often start their lesson: how in 1620, the Mayflower landed in Massachusetts, carrying Europeans seeking to escape religious persecution.

Instead, recount how several years prior to the Pilgrims making landfall, a horrific disease had claimed countless indigenous lives in and around Plymouth. This made way for the Europeans, who, having arrived ill-prepared for the upcoming winter, for survival, resorted to robbing corn buried with the deceased.

“Thanksgiving is full of embarrassing facts. The Pilgrims did not introduce the Native Americans to the tradition; Eastern Indians had observed autumnal harvest celebrations for centuries,” Loewen writes in “Lies My Teacher Told Me,” also noting that our modern celebration dates back to 1863, during the Civil War. “Pilgrims,” he continues, “had nothing to do with it,” and “no one used the term Pilgrims until the 1870s.”

I leave it to my students to decide if on the fourth Thursday of November they find it appropriate to share what they are thankful for, but I also ask them to consider why many Native Americans use this date to honor a National Day of Mourning.

However you go about teaching these two holidays, remember to include the bad along with the good. Otherwise, you’re lying to your students.

Essay 2: PRO/CON: Are "trigger warnings" on college textbooks and courses needed?

From “All Things Considered” by Anya Kamenetz

Pro- "Trigger warnings" don’t interfere with learning, they enhance it

NEW YORK — The college classroom is properly the site of serious discussion of potentially traumatic topics. "Trigger warnings" don’t interfere with that process — in fact, they enhance it.

Trigger warnings’ origins lie in the wilds of the Internet, where they arose as a way to alert readers about content that might be traumatic.

Their premise is that a rape survivor, for instance, might legitimately prefer to have some warning before encountering a graphic description of sexual assault. Though not entirely uncontroversial, trigger warnings generally don’t spark much rancor in online spaces. Some writers use them, most don’t, but they usually pass without much comment either way.

Earlier this year, though, when college students started pushing for the use of trigger warnings in classes, their demand provoked a massive, vitriolic and overwhelmingly negative response.

Unlike most faculty, though, I found the idea intriguing. As a historian I discuss some very dark and difficult material in class, and as a professor I think it’s important to give students a clear sense of their rights and responsibilities.

So after a bit of thinking and a bit of discussion, I came up with a trigger warning — I actually call it a “content note” — of my own, which I incorporated into my syllabus for the first time this summer.

In my content note I warn students that some of them may find some of the material we cover disturbing.

I don’t provide examples in the syllabus itself, but I do when we review it together. I let students know that I’m open to discussing their personal reactions to historical topics during class or in my office hours, tell them that they’re free to step outside briefly if they find any content overwhelming, and encourage them to talk to me privately if they have any specific concerns.

A few weeks ago, after I settled on the language of my content note, I wrote a short essay on the subject for the online academic newspaper Inside Higher Ed. The response to that piece was starkly divided, and the way that it broke down says a lot, I think, about the current academic trigger warning debate.

Most of the opponents of trigger warnings who replied to my piece didn’t find much to object to in the note itself.

Instead, they argued that what I’d written wasn’t a “trigger warning” at all — that it was too moderate, too reasonable, too simple to fit that description. Some went so far as to predict that it would be rejected out of hand by trigger warning proponents.

In fact, the opposite happened. With one mild exception, every trigger warning advocate who responded to my piece — in comments forums, on Facebook and Twitter, on blogs, or by email — embraced it.

Several said that they would be adopting a version of it in their own syllabi or suggesting it to their professors. More than one said that it would have made a major difference in classes that they had found deeply alienating.

While trigger warning opponents rejected my approach as insubstantial, even meaningless, in other words, supporters cheered it as a significant and potentially transformative pedagogical tool.

What does this — to me quite surprising — contrast tell us?

Think at least three things: First, that the discussion of trigger warnings in the classroom is still in its early stages, and that faculty should take calls for change as invitations to dialogue rather than as ultimatums.

Second, that despite the unfamiliar terminology, trigger warnings may not represent a huge departure from what we as professors are already doing.

And third, that even minor adjustments to teaching practice can have a substantial positive impact on the classroom environment.

CON: "Trigger warnings" shackle the free flow of ideas vital to higher education

MADISON, Wis. — Free-speech controversy is riveting higher education again. Major schools recently disinvited graduation speakers whom activists deemed “improper” to their notions of justice. And many institutions have begun formally to institute — or consider instituting — "trigger warnings."

Trigger warnings are verbal or written warnings instructors provide about material that might trigger “trauma” in students who have experienced or witnessed traumatic events, including forms of assault and war, and are sensitive about such topics as race, gender, sexual orientation, colonialism and imperialism — to name a few.

The humane case for trigger warnings is that they allegedly help protect students from re-experiencing the past trauma, which can emotionally harm the student and interfere with his or her ability to learn.

What could be wrong with that? Warnings might make outright censorship less likely, much like the movie industry avoided government censorship by agreeing to use ratings labels for films. This could even enhance freedom of inquiry while protecting emotional well-being. And have not many instructors quietly and informally engaged in such practice in the past?

Alas, many substantial problems lurk just beneath the surface — especially when one considers the intellectual climate at many colleges and universities, of which the fate of recent graduation speakers is symptomatic. Let me touch on a few.

First, as critics from across the political spectrum have averred, it is impossible to determine in advance what material merits a warning. To avoid complaints, threats and possible lawsuits because they failed to warn of some potentially offensive material, many instructors, given the general pressures at play in higher education, would likely extend warnings to large amounts of material, sending the misguided message that learning is traumatic per se.

Or they could bowdlerize the course material in the name of sensitivity. If ever the concept of the slippery slope applied, it would apply here.

Already, trigger warnings have been applied to such works as “The Great Gatsby,” “The Merchant of Venice” and other classics.

“Gatsby?” Really?! What’s next? “Hamlet?” And what if a student refuses to read the flagged material, however important it is to the class? Do not trigger warnings imply the right of refusal, which would open yet another Pandora’s Box?

Another danger waits: formalizing trigger warnings would further empower the higher-ed sensitivity bureaucracies that are often as voracious and omnipresent as they are ignorant of basic academic freedom principles.

Most important, the rationale for formal trigger warnings is inimical to the purposes of education.

Liberal education should expose students to the depths of the human condition, which unavoidably entails matters of good and evil, life and death — what the German philosopher Nietzsche called “uncomfortable truths.”

And civic education must prepare students to be mentally strong enough to handle the rigors associated with the clash of ideas that is paramount to a free society. As the great educational philosopher Alexander Meiklejohn remarked, “To be afraid of ideas, any idea, is to be unfit for self-government.”

Born from the tenets of the controversial “trauma movement” in psychology, trigger warnings assume that many students are not capable of handling the responsibilities of adult citizenship.

In the name of sensitivity, the movement undermines the very equal respect it ostensibly supports, while also fostering the mentality of in loco parentis that universities properly abandoned decades ago.

To deal with occasional cases of extreme material, leave the matter where it has always resided: at the considered informal discretion of instructors.

If a formal trigger warning must be had, place these words atop a university’s main webpage: “Education necessarily exposes students to ideas and experiences that are new, challenging, and sometimes painful. To be properly educated, you must learn to handle and welcome such challenges.”

Strategies to Help You Get Going…

Get it down. Take chances. It may be bad, but it’s the only way you can do anything really good.
– William Faulkner

Let’s try and better understand how prewriting and the writing process can help you combat writer’s block and other anxieties and properly address your prompt.

Let’s first define the writer’s process… While the writing process may be different for each person and for each particular assignment, experts suggest that there is general recipe for success. Strong writing can more easily be crafted when work flows naturally along the following simplified path: pre-writing, organizing, and then revising. This may seem obvious and irrelevant, but it's not. Writing is a process, not merely a product and knowing how many steps stand between you and your blank page and the due date that is approaching can help empower you to become the writer you need to be. Even the best professional writers don't just sit down at a computer, write, and call it a day. The quality of your writing will reflect the time and forethought you put into the assignment and the way you approached the task. For our first essay together, let’s try out this traditional method of writing and go through each of the 5 steps:

1.       Prewriting

2.       Drafting

3.       Editing

4.       Revising

5.       Publishing

Step 1: Prewriting

When you sit down to write, does your mind turn blank? Are you sure you have nothing to say?

If so, you're not alone. Many writers experience this at some time or another, but some people have strategies or techniques to get them started. When you are planning to write something, try some of the following suggestions.

You can try the textbook formula:

1.       State your thesis.

2.       Write an outline.

3.       Write the first draft.

4.       Revise and polish.

. . . but that often doesn't work.

Instead, you can try my recipe for success. I always begin with my intention…

·        Ask yourself what your purpose is for writing about the subject.

There are many "correct" things to write about for any subject, but you need to narrow down your choices. For example, your topic might be "diversity in college admisions." At this point, you and your potential reader are asking the same question, "So what?" Why should you write about this, and why should anyone read it? Make sure you revisit the prompt whenever you’re writing for credit. Your purpose and intention should be true to you but also mindful of the academic situation.

Do you want the reader to agree with you that four year universities disenfranchise students of color?

Do you want to there to be a legal call of action?

Do you want to compare your community college to your local CSU?

·        Ask yourself how you are going to achieve this purpose.

How, for example, would you achieve your purpose if you wanted to describe some movie as the best you've ever seen? Would you define for yourself a specific means of doing so? Would your comments on the movie go beyond merely telling the reader that you really liked it? Often, I will write a check list. What do I need to write and create in order to convince the reader of my thesis?

·        Now, start the ideas flowing by getting your pen to move. My college composition teacher often said, “You can’t make the water flow if you don’t turn on the faucet.”

Brainstorm. Gather as many good and bad ideas, suggestions, examples, sentences, false starts, etc. as you can. Perhaps some friends can join in. Jot down everything that comes to mind, including material you are sure you will throw out. Be ready to keep adding to the list at odd moments as ideas continue to come to mind.

Talk to your audience, or pretend that you are being interviewed by someone — or by several people, if possible (to give yourself the opportunity of considering a subject from several different points of view). What questions would the other person ask? You might also try to teach the subject to a group or class. Even record yourself on your phone while talking so the ideas come quick. Or talk at a person you can trust and have them take dictation.

….Now, here’s the best part: Take a rest and let it all percolate. Reread your prewriting “word vomit” and summarize your whole idea. Try to express it in three or four sentences.

Diagram your major points somehow. Any shape that comes naturally will do. Make a tree, outline, or whatever helps you to see a schematic representation of what you have. You may discover the need for more material in some places. Freewrite whenever ideas come to you or a vacuum opens. Fill it with your big beautiful, unhindered, unjudged thoughts. Just generate.

Then, if possible, put it away. Later, read it aloud or to yourself as if you were someone else. Watch especially for the need to clarify or add more information. You may find yourself jumping back and forth among these various strategies. That’s the best part. That’s how you know your brain is working. The process is meant to be recursive and messy.

In case you want something more structured and clean, here’s a worksheet-like system:

In the space below, write whatever you need to know about your assignment, including information about the topic, audience, pattern of writing, length, whether to include a rough draft or revised drafts, and whether your paper must be typed.

Now list or cluster or take notes about what you think you should make the final draft of your paper.

Reread the above material and write a thesis; label the subject and focus parts. Try the formula: x is y because z; more specifically, try: Topic + Opinion + Because.

Example: "Trigger Warnings" are unnecessary and inappropriate because they confirm the paranoid suspicions about education, too general to enforce, and limiting. 

Step 2: Outline

While this outline was crafted specifically for essay 1, it will essentially work for every essay we write this semester.

I.  Introduction Paragraph

1. Attention Getter

·        Don’t use the tired techniques you learned in junior high. You’re over them and so am I. Instead, challenge yourself and try:

-        Humor (Exaggerate): Our neighbors have all moved away —again, and it's all Mom's fault—again.

-        Horrify: Imagine a line of dead and mangled bodies stretching for twenty-five miles—25,000 corpses. That is the number of victims of drunk driving every year. It's hard to believe that the number is increasing in spite of the ads and community awareness efforts.

-        Startle: Buyers beware! A suit, shined shoes, a Rolex, Old Spice, and a dazzling smile don't make someone an expert. People should not let smooth-talking advertisers, manufacturers, and car salesmen sell them the wrong car.

-        Authority: "Drinking kills more young drivers than any other cause," says John Smith, head of Wisconsin highway safety. "

-        Literary work: "Little Miss Muffffet sat on a tuffffet... along came a spider..." She was lucky it wasn't a brown recluse spider. Now found as far north as Wisconsin, this spider sports a nasty bite that unless treated correctly can cause death.

-        Start with a verbal picture that relates to the topic. Do not begin "Picture this.." or "Imagine this.." just begin powerfully: The young driver turns up the stereo louder and smiles as he dreams of the fun he had at the party—plenty of good music and beer. Suddenly a tree appears from out of nowhere. He grabs at the wheel to turn the car. Headlights swerve in the darkness. But it's too late. A patrol car screams to find the twisted body of another kid who drank and drove.

-        Start with a contrast: If you think being big is the name of the game in the NBA, you're right. The typical pro basketball player looks like a skyscraper wearing size 18 sneakers, but that doesn't mean there isn't room for the little guy with big talent: Muggsy Bogues at 5'5" tall has played an integral part in the success of his team.

-        Start with an anecdote: Ryan Rubos took his neighbor to court because he hadn't cut his grass in fourteen years. Kay Mart of Madison, Wisconsin, sued her neighbor because the leaves from his tree fell in her yard, and she had to rake them. Perhaps if lines of communication had been open or if each had shown a little more compassion to each other, these disputes wouldn’t end up in courts.

2. Introduce Author and Title of work. 

3. Provide a concise summary.

4. Provide a thesis statement.

II. Body Paragraphs

1. A topic sentence that supports some aspect of your thesis.

2. Introduction to quotation that provides context and a quotation that is evidence for your topic sentence or a summary or paraphrasing of said evidence.

3. Translate or restate the quotation in your own words to match your argument.

4. Analyze further.  Draw connections.  Isolate particular language to connect to topic sentence.  Try not to repeat the same thing over and over.  Try not to draw a conclusion that you have not broken down step by step.

5. Repeat as necessary.

6. Draw a conclusion that finishes analysis and brings in language from thesis statement and the topic sentence.  More advanced writers will create a bridge between paragraphs, stating how each idea is ultimately connected and why the order of evidence is as such.

III. Conclusion

1. What deep and thought-provoking questions did the article and/or your essay raise? 

2. Remind the reader what your primary argument was.

3. Explain to your reader why it’s important that they read your essay.

4. Tie in your attention getter.  

Step 3: Draft

Really, drafting is a two-step process. Sit down, and write. If you’ve prewritten effectively, now you’re just filling in the outline. You can’t edit something you haven’t written, and the only way you’ll ever finish is if you start.

 "There is nothing to writing. All you do is sit down at a typewriter and bleed” –Hemingway

Step 4: Editing & Revising

Editing – Finding errors in punctuation, grammar, spelling, and superfluity or awkwardness.

Revising – Changing the content of your essay. Determind areas where you could add, delete, or move text to make your content more effective.

Or, in other words, editing is like going to the gym and revising is like plastig surgery. One involve sentence level issues and the other is large scale. Both are impotant when it comes to perfecting your writing. Many students cringe when it comes to thoughts of editing and revising and miss this critical component of turning in an essay you can be proud of. I understand the dilemma. You have finally finished your paper; you have sweat over your word choice and agonized over arrangement, but what do I want you to do now? Comb through all of it and dig in looking for errors? Not a fun victory lap. But the only thing worse is getting back an essay you worked on for weeks and seeing that you made silly, sentence level errors that I caught instantly. Typos suck. They are saboteurs, undermining your intent, they result in low grades and in the future they can cause your resume to land in the “pass” pile. Worst of all, they are usually words you know how to spell, but somehow skimmed over in your rounds of editing—begging the question, if we are our often own harshest critics, why do we miss those annoying little details? According to modern science, the reason typos get through isn’t because we’re stupid or careless, it’s because what we’re doing is actually very smart. Psychologist Tom Stafford, who studies typos of the University of Sheffield in the UK, explains, “When you’re writing, you’re trying to convey meaning. It’s a very high level task,” he said, and as with all high level tasks, your brain generalizes simple, component parts (like turning letters into words and words into sentences) so it can focus on more complex tasks (like combining sentences into complex ideas). “We don’t catch every detail, we’re not like computers or NSA databases,” said Stafford. “Rather, we take in sensory information and combine it with what we expect, and we extract meaning.” When we’re reading other peoples’ work, this helps us arrive at meaning faster by using less brain power. When we’re proof reading our own work, we know the meaning we want to convey. Because we expect that meaning to be there, it’s easier for us to miss when parts (or all) of it are absent. The reason we don’t see our own typos is because what we see on the screen is competing with the version that exists in our heads. Thankfully, however, I have tricks to work around this:

1. Reflect on what you typically struggle with and edit just for those errors.

2. Revisit the prompt and check your paper. Does it encompass what the professor asked for?

3. Use the rubric to grade your draft and then zone in on the areas that hurt your projected score.

4. Print your paper and read it aloud slowly, covering every sentence except the one you’re reading. Make sure you read ONLY what is actually on the page, and as you read, keep a pen in your hand and write directly on the draft any extra information you wish to insert. If you stumble as you read aloud, re-read that section and see if it is the sentence that is to blame. Rework that sentence.

5. When you’re proof reading, you must trick your brain into pretending that it’s reading the thing for the first time. I suggests that if you want to catch your own errors and you can’t print out your draft and must edit on screen, you should try to make your work as unfamiliar as possible by changing the font or background color.

Step 6 is my favorite and it’s required anytime you choose to revise. I call it the revision grocery list:

Identify the Mistake You Made	Why is this a Mistake? Why is it Important to Revise?	How Often Do You Make This Mistake? Rarely? Often? Constantly?	How did you repair it?
Example: My sentences are awkward.	I need to think more about my reader; readers don’t want to read through awkward paragraphs.	I wrote many awkward sentences in my second body paragraph. I also did it a lot in my last English class.	Many of my sentences just didn’t flow, so I added transitions. With a few of the extra awkward sentences, I cut out extra words. I highlighted all the revised sentences.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Chapter II: Essay #2 and a Few More Helpful Strategies

In essay 2, you will be asked to apply everything you learned in our extended, staggered first essay by focusing on any abstract concept of your choice. In that regard, this assignment has significantly more freedom than your last essay, despite the fact that the skills will all be the same. In order to be successful, your essay will define something abstract, challenging, vague or difficult to categorize and it will do so in clear detail.

Your definition should be personally motivated and therefore, it should differ from what others might offer as a definition. Your essay will include various strategies of definition such as example, negation, anecdote, or expert opinion.  Think of every way someone could consider your concept of choice. How would you explain it to an alien? You really want to question how you dole out meaning and how you translate it to others. Can you break your concept into parts and explain those? Can you provide counter examples that are helpful? Can you paint a picture? Can you explain its function and how it operates in the real world? Would background information be useful? Does it show up in literature? Music? Film? Do those examples help make it more palpable? Talk it out with the people around you and use pre-writing to help prepare you.

Below is a visual organizer to help you collect your notes and arrange them into a draft:

Press yourself to be creative and go beyone the obvious. This essay should be 2-3 pages long, include multiple paragraphs, be support-heavy, and thesis centered. The rubric stays the same, as does the suggested outline.

Sample topics:

Love

Hope

Independence

Diversity

Sexism

Responsibility

Jedi

Optimism

Success

Coachella

Fashion

Nerd

Cruelty

Queer

Sister

Acceptance

Father

Male

Latino

Scholar

Mature

Healthy

Adulting

Music

Finesse

Quinceanera

Courage

Family

Friend

Hunger

Patriotism

Athlete

Swagger

Christian

Authentic

Team

Intelligence

GOAT

Respect

Novio/Novia

Citizen

Racism

Soccer

Fairness

Netflix & Chill

Machismo

Immigrant

Keepin’ it 100

What an “A” essay will absolutely need:

-        2 integrated quotations,

-        Topic and conclusion sentences in each body paragraph that reinforce the thesis,

-        Transitions that contribute to flow and unity,

-        Strong, flavorful vocabulary,

-        Varied sentence structure,

-        Unique and meaningful and adequate support.

Tools to Help with Essay 2: The Quote Sandwich

From here on out, you will have to integrate quotations. Here are some guidelines and tips for doing that according to MLA standards. To ensure that your reader fully understands how the quote you are using supports your thesis, you must smoothly incorporate the quote into your paragraph; otherwise, your reader may be left unsure of why you used the quote.  The “quote sandwich” is a method, similar to PEEL that aides you in effectively adding quotes. See below for a further explanation.

Introducing Quotations1

To guarantee that your reader clearly follows your writing, you should introduce your quotes with a signal phrase, reporting verb, or both (as shown in the quote sandwich) rather than simply plopping the quote down.  If you add in a quote without any sort of introduction, your reader may not understand how the quote connects to your paragraph, even if it makes sense to you (think of it as similar to a random thought in a conversation).

Below are examples of signal phrases and reporting verbs that you can use to introduce your quotes:

For Example:

Dwight Bolinger notes that “in a society where women and farmers are regarded as inferior, sex differences and occupational differences become class differences” (99).

Malcolm X writes, “I was so fascinated that I went on- I copied the dictionary’s next page. And the same experience came when I studied that. With every succeeding page, I also learned of people and places and events from history” (89).

Elizabeth Wong comments “The language was a source of embarrassment. More times than not, I had tried to dissociate myself from the nagging, loud voice that followed me wherever I wandered in the nearby American supermarket outside Chinatown” (291).

Punctuating      Quotes

In addition to incorporating quotes with the quote sandwich, and introducing them with signal phrases and reporting verbs, there are a few punctuation rules to keep in mind.

The first time you reference an article (or other text) you need to give the name(s) of the author(s), the title of the article, and the name of the magazine or book (if you know it) and any context you can provide that would help the reader.

Introduce the Author

The first time you use a quote from an article, you need to use the author’s first and last name. (The next time you use a quote from that author, only use the last name.)

How to Punctuate Titles

Put the names of articles, essays, poems, essays, and chapters in quotation marks:

“Talking Like a Lady” “Dialect”

“Mother Tongue” “Black Hair”

Underline or italicize the titles of books, movies, magazines, newspapers, periodicals, and musical albums:

Our America                                       Our America

San Francisco Chronicle                     San Francisco Chronicle

The Great Gatsby                              The Great Gatsby

The Godfather                                    The Godfather

The Quote Itself:

·        Put quotation marks “ ” around the quote and use the author’s exact words

·        After the quote, put the page number in parentheses, and the period after the parentheses.

Other Notes:

·        Insert ellipses (…) wherever you delete any words from the original quotation

·        Use brackets ([ ]) to add words or substitute words in the original quotation.

Lastly… ADD IN YOUR EXPLANATION!

Once you’ve made sure to punctuate your quotes correctly, explain them!! (The last part of the quote sandwich.) My favorite ways to introduce your own thoughts are:

In other words, X asserts….

In arguing this claim, X argues…

X’s illustration is ….

, which is to say that …..

The basis of X’s argument is that ….

In saying this, X ….

X’s quotation brings to mind…

Remember to only quote an expert when you feel they say it better than you could. Quoting is the highest level of evidence but it should be done sparingly. Paraphrasing and summarizing are excellent tools.

(More) Tools to Help with Essay 2: Transitions, Unity, Cohesion, & Coherence

Cohesion: A sense of sentence-by-sentence flow enabling the reader to move through a passage, where each sentence connects to the previous one and the one that follows.

Coherence: An overall sense of unity in a passage where main points of sentences align with the main point of paragraphs, which in turn link to central ideas in the essay. Coherence allows a reader to focus on a specific topic at hand.

How to improve these qualities in your writing:

Pro Tip 1: Old First, New Second

-        Begin your sentence with information familiar to your readers, not with a bit of new information or technical knowledge, and if possible, begin with a reference that directs backwards towards previously given material. If you must introduce new language or a new topic, use a transition.

-        End your sentence with new information a reader does not anticipate.

-        Use transitions in between.

-        Consider how this formula for cohesion is used in the following example from Katherine McCollough’s article “You Should Hold Your Friends Accountable For Sexual Misconduct”:

Believe survivors. Even though we all know abuse is rampant, it’s still incredibly hard to believe that someone you trusted could do something so awful. When you hear the allegations against your friend, your natural responses will probably include shock and disbelief. Wait for those feelings to subside before you publicly react. Remember that false reports of sexual misconduct are very rare, and victim-blaming can silence others from coming forward. For these reasons and more, when someone speaks out about their abuse, it’s important to believe them.

            In each sentence, the author begins with a reference to what directly gets stated before hand. Sentence 1 closes: “someone you trusted could do something so awful.” That is new         information, but in sentence 2’s beginning, it’s repeated as old: “When you hear the         allegations…” Then, again, sentence 2 closes on “shock and disbelief.” Lo and behold, sentence 3          begins on that same note: “those feelings;” the author is referring to “shock and disbelief.”            These sentences jigsaw themselves together, and that’s precisely how unity is created.

Pro Tip 2: Transitions help “weave” sentences together and help them move easily. They also build relationships between ideas. Here are some helpful ones organized for easy use:

-        When providing an illustration for a claim: For example; For instance; More specifically; As proof; Consider; By way of illustration; To name just a few; Speaking of x.

-        Add details: Also; In addition; Moreover; Furthermore; Not only x but y; In concordance; Concomitantly; Plus.

-        Comparing or contrasting: Although; Nevertheless; Despite x; Even though; Regardless of x, y; Still however; Despite x, y

-        Indicate time passing: 1^st, 2^nd, 3^rd; Later; Previously; As aforementioned; Above; Below

-        Draw Conclusions: Therefore; As a result; Consequently; Hence; For this reason; Thus; Accordingly; In which case.

Highlight some of your favorite. Pick at least three that are new to you and try them in your next essay.

Time to practice:

Read the following paragraph carefully. Underline the controlling idea expressed in the topic sentence; then example each following sentence for unity. If a sentence does not develop or support a paragraph’s controlling idea, it needs to either be cut, be rephrased, or integrated in with a transition statement.

(1) Pilots are the primary cause of aircraft accidents. (2) Ignoring their responsibilities, many pilots fail to perform their duties efficiently, and tragedy has too often been the needless result. (3) History shows that many fatal accidents have occurred; for example, when pilots fail to listen to the advice of air traffic controllers concerning impending danger, they choose to endanger their passengers. (4) To become an air traffic controller, one must be extremely intelligent. (5) Sometimes, people are overtired, and they neglect to take the precautions necessary to avoid accidents. (6) They may even be under the influence, and that slows their physical reactions. (7) As we all know, statistics indicated that many college students abuse drugs, and these are the exact students who should never be pilots. (8) Sometimes, accidents occur through a malfunction of plane equipment. (9) A door many open during flight, or a tire may blow out as the plan takes off. (10) Pilots, of course, aren’t responsible in this case. (11) Perhaps most startling is the fact that every year student pilots attempt journeys beyond their capability and end up producing catastrophes that destroy life and property. (12) Commercial airflight is safest, as a result. (13) The next time you fly you should ask yourself whether the pilot looks happy and healthy, are there cracks on the wing or tail and does the weather look okay?

I can’t wait to hear the revisions you make! I double spaced the paragraph so you could write directly on it with your edits.

Pro Tip 3: Vary up your sentences

We will receive a handout in class on this subject, but for now, consider the following:

           

(More) Tools to Help with Essay 2: Conclusion Paragraphs

People hate conclusion paragraphs, but let’s talk about it! Usually, you simply hate these paragraphs because they were taught to you incorrectly. If you think of a conclusion paragraph as simply an opportunity to summarize all the work you just did, no wonder you’re bored. Thankfully, that is not its purpose. Here are some more productive and meaningful ways to close:

-        Ask and answer a provocative question you couldn’t have asked at the beginning of the essay,

-        Use a quotation that you feel summarizes your primary points,

-        Evoke a vivid image that embodies your essay’s focus,

-        Call for some sort of action,

-        End with a foreboding warning;

-        Universalize;

-        Suggest results or consequences.

Chapter III: Reading Skills

Reading like a reader: We might think of this as the “normal” way of reading where we the reader try to figure out what a piece of writing means by understanding the words and translating meaning.

Reading like a writer: This is when you read from the perspective of a writer, focusing on how a writer says something versus what they are saying. Specifically, we look at writing technique.

These are not the only ways to read, but they represent two interesting and valuable ways to experience a text, and if you were to master them, I think you’d be able to read competently in any college level course.

How to Read Like a Reader

Personally, I find teaching reading to be rather intimidating because I can never really know for sure how students are doing it. I can look out across a classroom and see a group of kids with their faces buried in between the pages of their books, but I have no way of knowing what’s really going on. For all I can tell, they could be sitting quietly, thinking about nothing, and turning pages just to make me feel good. There’s no way to know for sure what goes on in a reader’s head. And every reader probably reads a little differently. But here’s a list of six things I think all successful, trained readers do, things that make them more successful, and make reading more fun. I call this “reading like a reader”:

Question. Readers ask good questions about the things they read. What kinds of questions do they ask? Just about anything that comes to mind: why something is happening or not happening, why a character feels or acts a certain way, things we wonder about or are confused by, words we may not know the meanings of, and so on. Questions help readers clarify their understanding.

Predict. Readers make guesses about what is coming up next. No reader, it seems, can resist thinking about what a writer is going to say next. It’s just part of human nature to anticipate things. Predicting helps readers sort out important information from unimportant information, it helps them organize their thinking as they encounter new material. Infer. Readers figure out things about what they read that aren’t actually written in the text. There’s almost always more to a story than just the words on the page. Often, writers leave “clues” that good readers can use to discover important information. Predictions can be made more meaningful if you write them down as you go in the margins, linking them to the clues that lead to their conclusions. Then, as the reading continues on, you can check back in and see how your detective work is faring.

Connect. Readers think about what their reading reminds them of. We can’t help but be reminded of our own lives as we read. We’re also reminded of similar things we’ve read in other texts and other parts of the same text we’re reading at the time. Feel. Readers have feelings while they read, they express emotions. Sometimes, it seems like we have a direct connection to what we’re reading: sad parts make us feel sad, happy parts make us feel happy, scary parts scare us, and so on. But often, the feelings we have are more subtle, we may feel them only slightly, for example, when we read with more expression. Much of the meaning we get from a piece of writing comes from the emotions we feel when read it.

Evaluate. Readers make judgments while they read. Is this good? If so, what’s good about it? Do I like it? Why? Should I keep reading or should I put this down and get something else? Readers are finicky, impatient, judgmental. The evaluations they make help them decide whether or not what they are reading is valuable and, if so, how they might use it. Try these techniques on the following poem about reading:

THE VOICE YOU HEAR WHEN YOU READ SILENTLY

-Thomas Lux

is not silent, it is a speaking-

out-loud voice in your head;  it is *spoken*,

a voice is *saying* it

as you read.  It's the writer's words,

of course, in a literary sense

his or her "voice" but the sound

of that voice is the sound of *your* voice.

Not the sound your friends know

or the sound of a tape played back

but your voice

caught in the dark cathedral

of your skull, your voice heard

by an internal ear informed by internal abstracts

and what you know by feeling,

having felt.  It is your voice

saying, for example, the word "barn"

that the writer wrote

but the "barn" you say

is a barn you know or knew.  The voice

in your head, speaking as you read,

never says anything neutrally- some people

hated the barn they knew,

some people love the barn they know

so you hear the word loaded

and a sensory constellation

is lit:  horse-gnawed stalls,

hayloft, black heat tape wrapping

a water pipe, a slippery

spilled *chirr* of oats from a split sack,

the bony, filthy haunches of cows...

And "barn" is only a noun- no verb

or subject has entered into the sentence yet!

The voice you hear when you read to yourself

is the clearest voice:  you speak it

speaking to you.

How to Read Like a Writer

Whoa. Wait up. There’s another way to read? Normally, when we read, we focus on what the writer is trying to say. When we read like a writer, however, we focus on how the writer is saying it. Because we are writers ourselves, we pay close attention to the techniques a writer is using and how those techniques contribute to the meaning of the piece and improve its quality. We may even borrow the techniques we learn for our own writing. I call this “reading like a writer.” It’s how I read your essays when I grade them.

Reading like this means paying attention to:

Ideas. Ideas are the heart of the piece — what the writer is writing about and the information her or she chooses to reveal about it. When we read like a writer, we try to answer questions like these: How does the writer reveal the main idea? What types of details does the writer use? How does the writer achieve his or her purpose? How does the writer’s choice of ideas affect the reader?

Organization. Organization refers to the order of ideas and the way the writer moves from one idea to the next. When we read like a writer, we try to answer questions like these: What kinds of leads does the writer use and how do they pull us in and make us want to read more? What kinds of endings does the writer use and how do they work to make the writing feel finished and to give us something important to think about? How does the writer handle transitions? What techniques does the writer use for sequencing? How does the writer control pacing?

Voice. Voice is how the writing feels to someone when they read it, it’s the expression of the writer’s individual personality through words. When we read like a writer, we try to answer questions like these: How does the writer demonstrate passion for the topic? How does the writer reveal emotions? How does the writer put personality into the piece?

Word Choice. Word Choice refers to writer’s selection of particular words and phrases to express ideas. When we read like a writer, we try to answer questions like these: What techniques (simile, metaphor, strong verbs, etc.) does the writer use to make the word choice more specific, more memorable, and more effective?

Sentence Fluency. Sentence Fluency is the rhythm and flow of the language as we read it, it’s how the writing sounds when read aloud. When we read like a writer, we try to answer questions like these: What kinds of sentence constructions does the writer use? How does the writer vary the length and construction of his or her sentences? How does the writer use “sound” effects like alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm?

Conventions. Conventions are the ways we agree to use punctuation, spelling, grammar, and other things that make writing consistent and easy to read. When we read like a writer, we try to answer questions like these: How does the writer use conventions to make the writing easy to read and more meaningful? Does the author use conventions in unusual ways that are successful?

Now, return to the Thomas Lux poem and read it differently. What did you discover? How did your reading feel? What did you notice?

Metacognitive Reading Resources to Help You Along

Now that you understand more about the reading process, do your best to pay attention to how you feel when you read, the style in which you choose to read, and how you record the thoughts you experience while reading. When students keep reading logs, they make their future analysis of that reading easier to do and they protect themselves from forgetting what they read and what they discovered. Try the following template:

Important Ideas and Information From the Reading “What I Read”	My Thoughts, My Feelings, Questions I Have… “What I Thought”

Chapter IV: Research & Argument

Our semester together with culminate with a capstone project that puts together every skill we learned: The I-Search Paper, a personalized twist on a more traditional research essay. It will be argumentative, it will be long, it will take weeks to complete, and it will be a challenge, but at the end, you will be ready for any kind of writing college coursework may require.

The I-Search paper is designed to teach the writer and the reader something valuable about a chosen topic and about the nature of searching and discovery. As opposed to the standard research paper in which the writer usually assumes a detached and objective stance, the I-Search paper allows you to take an active role in your search, to hunt for facts and truths firsthand, and to provide a step-by-step record of the discovery process. For this assignment, you will write a 6-7 page paper on your topic and an additional works cited page. This paper will require at least five sources (more would always be good): 2 must be “print” sources, 2 must be scholarly articles found in “electronic” databases, 1 must be “other” (interview, television, radio, or other media), and 1 must be an interview (with an expert, a survivor, or you can survey individuals). The “other” sources might be difficult to track down and they may not be as academic as your other sources, but they should hopefully introduce interesting contrast and variety to your breadth of research. Things to consider when it comes to research:

·        Make sure that your sources are credible; the library should help with this.

·        If you are researching something that requires you include non-credible sources (for example, if you are researching Bigfoot), make sure you also cite six credible sources in addition to the non-credible ones.

·        Make sure your sources are relevant and modern. Only one of your 5 sources may be more than 7 years old.

Topic:

The cardinal rule of the I-Search paper is to choose a subject that genuinely interests you and

that you want to know more about. You may want to research the arguments that support the French air raid over Syria or arguments in favor or in opposition to gender inclusive restrooms on college campuses. Whatever it is, make sure it’s something that electrifies you, and something that will remain interesting after three weeks of research. Remember: fascinating topics are EVERYWHERE, so keep your eyes open. It can be an issue that disturbs you, that you vehemently oppose, or one your wholeheartedly agree with, or even one you are undecided about. It can be something you know a lot or a little about. Because of the nature of the I-search, you cannot simply tell me what you already know for your research. No matter what you know, you will have to learn more, so find something that will engage you for a long period, not something that seems accomplishable or something you’re already an expert in.

Format:

The I-Search paper should be written in four sections:

(Yes, you should label them.—preferably with a cool title for each section. No, you don’t need to start a separate page for each.):

1. What I already know, assume, or imagine and why I am interested. (1-2 pages)

2. The search—what I did to go about learning more. (1-2 pages)

3. What I discovered, what this means to me, and why you should agree with me. (3-4 pages)

4. Works Cited

1. What I already know or assume, why I am interested, and what I want to learn. After

clearing your topic with me, but before conducting any formal research, write an opening section of your paper in which you explain to the reader what you think you know, what you assume, or what you imagine about your topic. Lay out all of your hypotheses. For example, if you decided to investigate the debate over female genital mutilation, you might want to explain your own thoughts about the tradition, what you know about it, even if what you know is brief, and why you find this topic interesting. Then, come up with a list of things that you want to learn such as the various strategies put in place to stop the practice, the health risks, etc. Some advice here: the more specific your topic is, the easier it will be to write your essay.

For example, one student who has ADHD might want to investigate the argument that America is overmedicating its youth with drugs like Ritalin. If this was the case, I would suggest that student narrow her search to 2-3 very specific questions that she clearly identify at the end of her first section. (Hint: Even though in initial drafts you might write this section in present tense, you will probably want to change it to past tense by the final draft.)

2. The search. Test your knowledge, assumptions, or conjectures by researching your topic thoroughly. Consult useful books, magazines, newspapers, films, tapes, and other sources for information; make sure you’re hitting all the standards listed on page 1. When possible interview people who are authorities on or who are familiar with your topic; you only have to do this once, but it’s typically the best part of the paper, so do it as often as possible. Write this part of your paper in narrative form, recording the steps of the discovery process (you may want to start with “First, I…”). Which aspects were easy and why? Which were more challenging? (You’ll want to take VERY good notes along the way.) Do not feel obligated to tell everything, but highlight the happenings and facts you uncovered that were crucial to your hunt and contributed to your understanding of the topic. Important: you do not need citations in this section, because you should not be revealing specific information from your sources. You are just explaining HOW you found them.

3. What I discovered and what this means to me. After concluding your search, compare what you thought you knew or assumed and what you imagined you would learn with what you actually discovered. You might begin your introduction with the formula:

“First, I believed _____________________________, but now after my research, I understand _____________________________________________.” (Then insert an argumentative thesis sentence that covers your argument that is now informed by your research.)

Offer some personal commentary along the way: “To my surprise, I discovered that...” and feel confident drawing research based conclusions. Use the skills you have developed this semester in rhetorical analysis, reading comprehension, and inference to critique and extend the arguments that you find along the way. Point out logical fallacies wherever you find them (even if they are in your own initial thought). Make sure that you look at objective material concerning your topic, and incorporate not just opinion, but fact in support of your conclusion. Refer explicitly back to the 2-3 questions that you identified in section one of your paper. If you found satisfying answers to those questions, explain why. If you didn’t, explain why not. This third section is the more traditional, “research paper” part of your paper. This section is also the part that should contain your citations of other sources. Plagiarism will result in a failing grade for the entire class, and you will be reported to the president. Since you are required to submit this paper to turnitin.com, you will be caught, and no excuses will be accepted.

4. Works Cited. At the end of the paper, attach a formal, annotated Works Cited in MLA format listing the sources that you used to write your paper. We went over how to do a works cited during the library orientation, but you may use the resource in our text book or the tutorial on the library homepage for a refresher. Make SURE that you have the minimum required sources and the variety of sources requested. Failure to do so will result in a failing grade for the essay.

Due Dates:

Know your topic:

Have a thesis written and typed and with you in class:

MLA formatted matrix:

Rough Draft Due in class for workshopping:

Submit your paper in to turnitin.com by 5pm:

EACH ONE OF THE ABOVE THAT IS LATE WILL COST YOU 5% OF YOUR FINAL GRADE ON THE PAPER!

How to Argue

For 3,000 years, appeals to logic, character, emotion, need and value have been effectively persuading audiences and readers; these rhetorical choices are referred to as argumentative appeals and they provide critical and strategic support for an argument. Appeals differ from other forms of support such as evidence (statistics, facts, illustrations, etc.) in an important way: while evidence is already formed for the writer, an appeal must be constructed out of logical steps, shared values, beliefs, or needs. An appeal is the result of an arguer making a connection between his or her topic and his or her reader’s consciousness. Accordingly, appeals call for intellectual commitment, both on the part of the arguer and the audience. Good writers and arguers use appeals to make a topic come to life and enter the life of the audience.

Pathos: Appeals to Emotion

Pathos (emotional appeal): Appeal to an audience’s heart and emotions. An author or speaker using pathos seeks to persuade someone emotionally using personal connections, stories or testimonials, and maybe spirituality.

Writers use emotion to connect with readers to assure them that they are understood; such a bridge is especially important when writing about matters that readers regard as sensitive. While an ethical argument never intends to play puppetmaster with a reader’s emotions, it’s a good idea to spend some time in the prewriting process considering how you want readers to feel as they consider your claims. For example, would admission counselors at top university be more inclined to accept you if you made them sympathize with your economic disadvantages or would arousing their sense of equity be more effective?

Exercise: To what specific emotions do the following popular slogans appeal? And are they effective?

1.      Just do it. (Nike)

2.      Think different. (Apple)

3.      Yes we can! (Barack Obama for America)

4.      Country First. (John McCain Presidential Campaign)

5.      By any means necessary. (Rallying cry for Malcolm X)

Ethos: Appeal to Credibility

Ethos (ethical appeal): Appeal to the credibility and authority of a speaker. Using ethos, a writer can convey trustworthiness through tone and style as well as by establishing her credentials in a field.

Appeals to character draw attention to the arguer’s personal nature, integrity, experience, wisdom, or personality. They are used to fend off any doubts about the arguer’s credibility. Appeals to character are usually a small part of a bigger argument and are used to make the audience comfortable and more apt to accept claims. They are explicit attempts to build trust or confidence.

Logos: Appeals to Logic

People commonly believe that data is all that is needed to prove that something is true, but in argumentation, it is not the data that proves the case, it is the appeal to logic. The logical framework is what allows the evidence to have meaning. Whenever a writer asks a reader to think through an idea, to walk along an intellectual pathway, that writer is using logos, an appeal to logic. Sometimes, that invitation is direct: Yet another reason to accept the idea… or Given the following rationale, we should dismiss the argument that… Other times, the appeal is indirect wherein a writer establishes a subtle and seductive line of reasoning: a series of logical steps or premises that lead an audience towards a main claim. If the path is well crafted, readers follow along and accept the overall argument even if there are a few missteps or gaps along the way.

Types of Reasoning: Deductive Reasoning is often used when an author exercises logos because it builds a conclusion from accepted premises or general principles. Often, this means relying on classes (all people of color, all officers, all handguns).

For example:

1. All birds have beaks.

2. Polly the parrot is a bird.

à Polly has a beak.

Deduction may also rely on, or build from, a definitional statement—a statement that says what something is.

For example:

1. Bipeds are animals with two legs.

2. Ostriches have two legs.

à Ostriches are bipeds.

Inductive Reasoning, on the other hand, builds from specific premises and leads to a general claim.

Here’s a basic example:

1. I found a mouse in the Humanities building last week.

2. I saw a mouse in Professor Brenes’ office.

à Therefore, mice have infested my college campus.

In other words, anytime we make a conclusion based on several specifics, we are doing induction. Of course, the situation can be more sophisticated; take for example:

The warmest average annual temperatures recorded have occurred since 1991. Throughout the world, most high-temperature records have been set all within the last three years. On the whole, average winter temperatures have increased in the last fifty years while no regions have experienced decreasing summer temperatures. The Earth is warming.

Logical Fallacies

Aristotle was both the first formal logician—codifying the rules of correct reasoning—and the first informal logician—cataloging types of incorrect reasoning, namely, fallacies. He was both the first to name types of logical error, and the first to group them into categories. The result is his book On Sophistical Refutations.

A "fallacy" is a mistake, and a "logical" fallacy is a mistake in reasoning. There are, of course, other types of mistake than mistakes in reasoning. For instance, factual mistakes are sometimes referred to as "fallacies". However, The Fallacy Files is specifically concerned with logical errors, not factual ones. A logical error, on the other hand, is a mistake in an argument, that is, a mistake in an instance of reasoning formulated in language. As the term is used in logic, an "argument" is a group of statements one of which is called "the conclusion" and the rest are called "premisses.” Understanding this terminology and being able to label mistakes made in argument will empower you to analyze and examine the arguments made by other people.

There are two types of mistake that can occur in arguments:

1. A factual error in the premisses. As mentioned above, factual "fallacies" are not usually a question of logic; rather, whether a premiss is true or false is a matter for history or a science other than logic to determine.

2. The premisses fail to logically support the conclusion. A logical fallacy is usually a mistake of this type.

In logic, the term "fallacy" is used in two related, but distinct ways. For example:

1. "Argumentum ad Hominem is a fallacy."

2. "Your argument is a fallacy."

In 1, what is called a "fallacy" is a type of argument, so that a "fallacy" in this sense is a type of mistaken reasoning. In 2, it is a specific argument that is said to be a "fallacy", so that in this sense a "fallacy" is an argument which uses bad reasoning.

Sadly, despite Plato and Socrates’ efforts, often during the course of constructing an argument, debaters and writers alike fall into the trap of a logical fallacy. These mistakes in reasoning seriously affect our ability to argue effectively. Sometimes we fool ourselves into believing that a faulty argument is sound; other times we deliberately use a flawed argument for the sake of winning the battle. In any case, we should be aware that logical fallacies obscure the truth. Use this list of logical fallacies to identify them in your writing and the writing of others.

Begging the Question (or circular logic) happens when the writer presents an arguable point as a fact that supports the argument. This error leads to an argument that goes around and around, with evidence making the same claim as the proposition. Because it is much easier to make a claim than to support it, many writers fall into this trap.

Example: "These movies are popular because they make so much money. They make a lot of money because people like them. People like them because they are so popular." The argument continues around in the logical circle because the support assumes that the claim is true rather than proving its truth.

Non Sequitur arguments don't follow a logical sequence. The conclusion doesn't logically follow the explanation. These fallacies can be found on both the sentence level and the level of the argument itself.

Example: "The rain came down so hard that Jennifer actually called me." Rain and phone calls have nothing to do with one another. The force of the rain does not affect Jennifer's decision to pick up the phone.

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (after this, therefore also this) arguments, or post hoc for short, assume a faulty causal relationship. One event following another in time does not mean that the first event caused the later event. Writers must be able to prove that one event caused another event and did not simply follow in time. Because the cause is often in question in this fallacy, we sometimes call it a false cause fallacy.

Example: "Eating five candy bars and drinking two sodas before a test helps me get better grades. I did that and got an A on my last test in history." This arguer ignores other possible causes like how much he had studied and how easy the test was.

Poisoning the Well is a preemptive ad hominem attack against an opponent. That is, it primes the audience or reader with adverse information from the onset of an argument in an effort to make a claim more acceptable simply by discrediting the opponent.

               Example: Tim and his main competitor at work are about the present two different options to their boss; after Tim’s argument but before his opponent’s, he asserts, “Now my opponent will attempt to refute my argument by his own fallacious, incoherent, illogical plan!” Not a very nice setup for the next argument. If Tim’s boss allows this to affect his evaluation, he will be guilty of fallacious reasoning.

Faulty Analogies lead to faulty conclusions. Writers often use similar situations to explain a relationship. Sometimes, though, these extended comparisons and metaphors attempt to relate ideas or situations that upon closer inspection aren't really that similar. Be sure that the ideas you're comparing are really related. Also remember that even though analogies can offer support and insight, they can't prove anything.

               Example: "Forcing students to attend cultural events is like herding cattle to slaughter. The students stampede in to the event where they are systematically 'put to sleep' by the                program." While the analogy is vivid, the difference between cultural events and cattle slaughter is so vast that the analogy becomes a fallacy.

Hasty Generalizations base an argument on insufficient evidence. Writers may draw conclusions too quickly, not considering the whole issue. They may look only at a small group as representative of the whole or may look only at a small piece of the issue.

Example: Concluding that all fraternities are party houses because you have seen three parties at one fraternity is a hasty generalization. The evidence is too limited to draw an adequate conclusion.

Red Herrings have little relevance to the argument at hand. Desperate arguers often try to change the ground of the argument by changing the subject. The new subject may be related to the original argument, but does little to resolve it.

Example: "Winthrop should pave the lot behind Dinkins. Besides, I can never find a parking space on campus anyway." The writer has changed the focus of the argument from paving to the scarcity of parking spaces, two ideas that may be related, but are not the same argument.

Ignoring the Question is similar to presenting a red herring. Rather than answering the question that has been asked or addressing the issue at hand, the writer shifts focus, supplying an unrelated argument. In this way, the writer dodges the real issues of the debate.

Example: During a press conference, a political candidate is asked a pointed, specific question about some potentially illegal fund-raising activity. Instead of answering the allegations, the candidate gives a rousing speech thanking all of his financial supporters. The speech was eloquent and moving, but shifted the focus from the issue at hand.

Equivocation happens when the writer makes use of a word's multiple meanings and changes the meanings in the middle of the argument without really telling the audience about the shift. Often when we use vague or ambiguous words like "right," "justice," or "experience," we aren't sure ourselves what we mean. Be sure to know how you are using a word and stick with that meaning throughout your argument. If you need to change meanings for any reason, let your audience know of the change.

Example: When representing himself in court, a defendant said "I have told the truth, and I have always heard that the truth would set me free." In this case, the arguer switches the meaning of truth. In the first instance, he refers to truth as an accurate representation of the events; in the second, he paraphrases a Biblical passage that refers to truth as a religious absolute. While the argument may be catchy and memorable, the double references fail to support his claim.

Opposing a Straw Man is a tactic used by a lot of writers because they find it easier to refute an oversimplified opposition. Writers may also pick only the opposition's weakest or most insignificant point to refute. Doing so diverts attention from the real issues and rarely, if ever, leads to resolution or truth.

Example: The debate over drink machines centers around cost and choice. Opponents of the new drink machines bring up their location as an important issue. This insignificant point has little relevance to the actual issues.

Either--Or arguments reduce complex issues to black and white choices. Most often issues will have a number of choices for resolution. Because writers who use the either-or argument are creating a problem that doesn't really exist, we sometimes refer to this fallacy as a false dilemma.

Example: "Either we go to Panama City for the whole week of Spring Break, or we don't go anywhere at all." This rigid argument ignores the possibilities of spending part of the week in Panama City, spending the whole week somewhere else, or any other options.

Slippery Slopes suggest that one step will inevitably lead to more, eventually negative steps. While sometimes the results may be negative, the slippery slope argues that the descent is inevitable and unalterable. Stirring up emotions against the downward slipping, this fallacy can be avoided by providing solid evidence of the eventuality rather than speculation. (Note: Think “#thatescalatedquickly)

Example: "If we force public elementary school pupils to wear uniforms, eventually we will require middle school students to wear uniforms. If we require middle school students to wear uniforms, high school requirements aren't far off. Eventually even college students who attend state-funded, public universities will be forced to wear uniforms."

Bandwagon Appeals (ad populum) try to get everyone on board. Writers who use this approach try to convince readers that everyone else believes something, so the reader should also. The fact that a lot of people believe it does not make it so.

Example: "Fifty million Elvis fans can't be wrong!" Of course they can. The merit of Elvis is not related to how many people do or do not like him or his music.

False Authority is a tactic used by many writers, especially in advertising. An authority in one field may know nothing of another field. Being knowledgeable in one area doesn't constitute knowledge in other areas.

Example: A popular sports star may know a lot about football, but very little about shaving cream. His expertise on the playing field does not qualify him to intelligently discuss the benefits of aloe.

Ad Hominem (attacking the character of the opponent) arguments limit themselves not to the issues, but to the opposition itself. Writers who fall into this fallacy attempt to refute the claims of the opposition by bringing the opposition's character into question. These arguments ignore the issues and attack the people.

Example: Candidate A claims that Candidate B cannot possibly be an advocate for the working people because he enjoys the opera more than professional wrestling. Candidate B's personal entertainment preferences probably have little if anything to do with his stance on labor laws.

Tu Quoque (you're another) fallacies avoid the real argument by making similar charges against the opponent. Like ad hominem arguments, they do little to arrive at conflict resolution. This is sometimes referred to by the easier to remember term, The Hypocrite’s Fallacy.

Example: "How can the police ticket me for speeding? I see cops speeding all the time."

….But what does this look like in application? Spot the flawed logic in the following statements:

1.      Herbert Hoover single-handedly created the depression.

2.      FDR caused World War II.

3.      Surveys showed that married men are happier than unmarried men.

4.      Many people who go to the dentist have a lot of cavities.

5.      Marijuana use should remain illegal because it’s a first step toward the more serious drugs; most heroin addicts started with marijuana.

6.      If you’re not for recycling laws, you don’t care about your environment.

7.      In the coming election you have a choice between voting for me or voting for fiscal irresponsibility.

8.      People trapped in the ghetto have two choices in life: be a menial laborer and starve or take to crime.

9.      It’s incredible to me that in a culture that bans cockfights and bear baiting, we permit the same sort of thing with human beings.

10.   Gun control is wrong because the Constitution guarantees our right to keep and bear arms.

Sample Sentence Starters: They Say/I Say

You can use as many of these sentences as you’d like. They should prove helpful when it to writing your final essay.

Introducing an author’s opinion:

·        In “______,” X demonstrates/suggests/argues/reports/reminds that ___________________.

Building a discussion:

·        When it comes to the topic of ____, most will readily agree that _____. Where this agreement typically ends, however, is on the question of _______; some are convinced that _________, and others believe that _____________.

For embedding your own voice while also referencing research:

·        These conclusions, which X discusses in ____________, add weight to my argument that ___________.

For indicating who cares and why they should

·        This interpretation of _________ challenges the work of those who have long assumed _________.

·        Recent research sheds new lights on ____________, which previous studies had not addressed.

·        Although X may seem trivial, it is in fact crucial in terms of today’s concern over ___________.

·        Ultimately, what is at stake here is _____.

·        If I am right about __________, then major consequences follow for _________.

·        Although X may seem of concern only to a small group of _________, it should in fact concern anyone who cares about __________.

For offering commentary on research:

·        What ___________ really means is _____________.

·        To put it another way, _______________________.

For disagreeing with reason:

·        In “_____,” X is mistaken because he overlooks ________.

·        X’s claim that ______ rests upon questionable grounds; ______.

Chapter V: Vocabulary

Term	Definition	Example